Department of Art History

 

A Short Introduction to Modern Architecture

by Surana Singh-Bischofberger

 

Architecture in nineteenth century Europe (and the United States) was quite eclectic.  Many styles were drawn from earlier periods of history like: classicism and Gothic. 

Classical example: Kallikrates and Iktinos, Parthenon, Athens, Greece, 447-438 BCE

Gothic example: Salisbury Cathedral, Salisbury, England, 1220-1258; west facade completed 1265; spire ca. 1320-1330

In turn, the prefix neo was affixed to these previous styles to connote their reference to the past, while being a contemporary style; or the term revival was used. 

 

Neoclassical: Richard Boyle (earl of Burlington) & William Kent, Chiswick House, England, begun 1725

 

Gothic Revival: Charles Barry & A. W. N. Pugin, Houses of Parliament, London, England, designed 1835

 

 Since there was no unifying style the term Historical/Historicism is frequently used to describe nineteenth century architecture.  Correspondingly, modern material and building techniques were being developed, largely as the result of the Industrial Revolution which began in England around the 1740s.  Iron was a material commonly employed in nineteenth century design and architecture.  The first building, no longer in existence today, made of pre-fabricated materials, consisting primarily of iron and glass, was the Crystal Palace. This exhibition hall was designed with one continuous barrel vault that created an open interior for displays. 

 

 

 

 

 

Joseph Paxton, Crystal Palace, London, England, 1850-1851

 

 

As you can see, the walls were constructed primarily from glass, with iron support. This design allowed for great quantities of natural light to infiltrate the interior space aiding the display of exhibitions (light was also a crucial factor in the design of Gothic cathedrals, see above Salisbury, since light represented the presence of God).  

 

 

Towards the end of the nineteenth century, in terms of design, there were two distinct schools of thought: those who were more craft-orientated, stressing the handicraft of the artisan and those who argued for modern, ornament-free design.  In 1908 (published 1913), Adolf Loos wrote a now famous article titled “Ornament and Crime,” vehemently denouncing the use of ornament in design.  His argument would influence the aesthetic of modern architecture.

 

 

 

 

 

Adolf Loos

 

“Ornament-Free” Architecture: Adolf Loos, House for Lilly and Hugo Steiner in Vienna, Austria, 1910

The lack of ornamentation and the use of steel and concrete also enabled architects to develop new conceptions of space.  Walter Gropius called for architects to embrace a new architecture, a style without ornamentation.  He said that “the liberation of architecture from a welter of ornament, the emphasis on its structural functions, and the concentration on concise and economical solutions, represent the purely material side of that formalizing process on which the practical value of the New Architecture depends (Gropius, 1965).” 

 

Walter Gropius

Gropius saw the availability of inexpensive new materials as an answer to economical architecture for the people.  The creation and easy accessibility of new pre-fabricated materials, that were standardized in order to work with products from other manufacturers, was “a social necessity (Gropius, 1962).”  Today, for instance, go to your local IKEA to view simple, functionally designed, pre-fabricated products (that often require home assembly). 

 

Lack of ornamentation, utilization of new materials, and pre-fabricated materials were main contributors to modern design.  In turn, glass or “transparent structures,” where the entire wall is glass supported with steel or concrete, opened up the interior space and allowed a greater percentage of light to enter.  This was economically well-suited for the function of most of these buildings:  it allowed for better working conditions for employees and was cost-effective since the company avoided paying high costs for lighting the interior space.

 

 

Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer,

Fagus Factory at Alfed an der Leine,

Germany, 1911-1925

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Walter Gropius and the building department of the Dessau Bauhaus, Dessau Bauhaus Building, Germany, 1925-1926

The Fagus Factory has a wall of windows, segmented vertically by steel supports.  Each window is a part of a large grid, evenly divided into huge walls, with an overall horizontal emphasis.  Later, Gropius and the building department of the Dessau Bauhaus designed the Dessau Bauhaus Building.  This building went even further in creating a transparent wall.  Instead of a segmented glass facade with steel supports, the entire facade is composed of a glass grid with concrete bands framing the grid.  In the Dessau Bauhaus building the architects used less masonry than the Fagus Factory; it appears around the lowest perimeter of the building, marking the basement level. 

 

 

Two primary sources that I recommend are:

 

Gropius, Walter.  The New Architecture and The Bauhaus.  Cambridge:  MIT Press, 1965.

 

Loos, Adolf.  “Ornament and Crime,” 1908 (published 1913).